Horses in Medieval Warfare
This section of the website addresses the use of horses by both knights and samurai warriors. The various elements involved in the use of horses in medieval warfare include:
“Equestrian nations were the dynamic element of evolution…the alert consciousness
and expanded mental concepts which man acquired on horseback…molded the image of his universe”. [1]
Excavations done in burial graves and other archeological sites indicate that horses came from different areas.[2] Herds of wild horses migrated out from Asia, centuries ago and expanded into Europe.[3] The ancient Chinese sent an expedition to find horses in the area now called Uzbekistan (then known as Bactria) and these horses were larger than the smaller mounts used previously and thus, were highly valued. Their size also expanded military uses of horses – a cavalry was now possible.[4] Horses used by samurai warriors originally came from Central Asia, Mongolia, and China. They were very small, reaching a height of only 14.2 – 15 hands and were mostly used to pull chariots.
The standard measurement of a horse is called a “hand” and is measured from the ground to the withers (shoulder) of the animal. A hand equals 4 inches, so a horse measuring 15 hands equates to 15 X 4 = 60 inches or 5 feet. A measurement of 14.2 hands would measure 14 X 4 = 56 inches, plus 2 inches, equaling 58 inches, or approximately 58 inches, or 4’8’’.
Although there were already wild horses in Japan that were small, short-legged, short-nosed, and shaggy, Japan began to import horses from the Asian mainland during the Kofun era (ca 3rd century to 538 CE). As these imported horses spread throughout the archipelago distinct breeds developed in different areas; however, all the breeds had genetics similar to the small horses of Mongolia.
“Equestrian nations were the dynamic element of evolution…the alert consciousness
and expanded mental concepts which man acquired on horseback…molded the image of his universe”. [1]
Excavations done in burial graves and other archeological sites indicate that horses came from different areas.[2] Herds of wild horses migrated out from Asia, centuries ago and expanded into Europe.[3] The ancient Chinese sent an expedition to find horses in the area now called Uzbekistan (then known as Bactria) and these horses were larger than the smaller mounts used previously and thus, were highly valued. Their size also expanded military uses of horses – a cavalry was now possible.[4] Horses used by samurai warriors originally came from Central Asia, Mongolia, and China. They were very small, reaching a height of only 14.2 – 15 hands and were mostly used to pull chariots.
The standard measurement of a horse is called a “hand” and is measured from the ground to the withers (shoulder) of the animal. A hand equals 4 inches, so a horse measuring 15 hands equates to 15 X 4 = 60 inches or 5 feet. A measurement of 14.2 hands would measure 14 X 4 = 56 inches, plus 2 inches, equaling 58 inches, or approximately 58 inches, or 4’8’’.
Although there were already wild horses in Japan that were small, short-legged, short-nosed, and shaggy, Japan began to import horses from the Asian mainland during the Kofun era (ca 3rd century to 538 CE). As these imported horses spread throughout the archipelago distinct breeds developed in different areas; however, all the breeds had genetics similar to the small horses of Mongolia.
Origins of Asian Horses
Although there were already wild horses in Japan that were small, short-legged, short-nosed, and shaggy, Japan began to import horses from the Asian mainland during the Kofun era (ca 3rd century to 538 CE). As these imported horses spread throughout the archipelago distinct breeds developed in different areas; however, all the breeds had genetics similar to the small horses of Mongolia.
The beginnings of mounted warfare in Japan, however, remain a source of debate among historians. Some state that an invasion by mounted warriors from the Asian continent in the mid- to late-3rd, 4th, or 5th centuries. Others state that the Japanese learned the techniques from their opponents during expeditions into Korea beginning in the 5th century. By the 7th century, cavalry tactics had emerged in Japan.[5] The precursors to the samurai were mounted warriors that owned horses and were skilled with a bow. It was not until the 10th century that these warriors were called “samurai.”[6] The importance of the horse is illustrated by the fact that a samurai’s worth was measured by their skill with a bow from the back of the horse, known as the Way of the Horse and Bow.[7] Gradually, the weapons used on horseback evolved into the increasing use of bows, spears, swords, and eventually pistols.
The beginnings of mounted warfare in Japan, however, remain a source of debate among historians. Some state that an invasion by mounted warriors from the Asian continent in the mid- to late-3rd, 4th, or 5th centuries. Others state that the Japanese learned the techniques from their opponents during expeditions into Korea beginning in the 5th century. By the 7th century, cavalry tactics had emerged in Japan.[5] The precursors to the samurai were mounted warriors that owned horses and were skilled with a bow. It was not until the 10th century that these warriors were called “samurai.”[6] The importance of the horse is illustrated by the fact that a samurai’s worth was measured by their skill with a bow from the back of the horse, known as the Way of the Horse and Bow.[7] Gradually, the weapons used on horseback evolved into the increasing use of bows, spears, swords, and eventually pistols.
Origins of European Horses
Greeks and Romans also imported horses from Libya and other parts of the Mediterranean. Horse riding was even an Olympic event in 648 BC![8] William the Conqueror invaded England in 1066 using horses, as shown in this section from the Bayeux Tapestry.[9]
Introduction of Arabian Bloodlines
The introduction of the Arabian horse added a vital component to the efforts to develop stronger, more resilient and more powerful horses that would be suitable for warfare. It is commonly thought that Bedouins domesticated the “Arabian” breed, but there are indications that these horses originated in the Fertile Crescent of Persia thousands of years ago.[11] Arabs conquered Egypt and the North African coastline (both areas had indigenous horses) and eventually, Spain. An important factor in these Muslim conquests was the use of the superb Arabian cavalry, mounted on mares. Crusaders encountered Arabian horses during the Reconquista campaigns in Spain, as well as during the Crusades to the Holy Land, and brought them back to Europe.[12]
Impact of the Arabian Horse
European technological advances required larger and stronger horses for warfare because a horse had to be able to carry an increasingly well-armored knight and eventually, horse armor. Arabian horses had a shorter back because they had one less vertebrae and they possessed a greater bone density. Both of these features let them carry more weight.[13] They were compact and medium sized horses, but the combination of their physical conformation and their lineage made them an outstanding and versatile multi-purpose horse. More importantly, their bloodlines and Arabian breeding programs were rigidly controlled. Because of the difficulty in finding and maintaining forage, water and other necessities for Arabian horses in arid desert environments, Arabs had to be very selective about the horses they kept – especially those they used for breeding. Only the best and strongest survived for breeding and battle.
As far as horses used by samurai warriors was concerned, the horses that came from China had some blood from Arabian horses, which had been in China since the 2nd century CE, but Japan never received its own Arabians for breeding.[14] From the 16th to 18th centuries attempts to improve Japanese horses brought horses from places such as India and Europe. Horses from Europe affected the breeding of native Japanese horses, which caused a drastic decline in their numbers that almost led to their extinction.[15] Horses of this period averaged about 13 hands (52 inches, or 4’33”) in height. with an average weight of 280 kilograms (617 pounds). Expanding on this example, a Japanese warrior, (eventually fully) armored and carrying weapons and mounted on such a small animal, could weigh in excess of 200 pounds, thus increasing the load carried by the animal to over 820 pounds. In addition, the saddle and other tack added weight; Friday states that a horse cannot carry more than a third of its weight and maintain a sustained running speed, which greatly impacted military maneuvering and tactics.[16]
As far as horses used by samurai warriors was concerned, the horses that came from China had some blood from Arabian horses, which had been in China since the 2nd century CE, but Japan never received its own Arabians for breeding.[14] From the 16th to 18th centuries attempts to improve Japanese horses brought horses from places such as India and Europe. Horses from Europe affected the breeding of native Japanese horses, which caused a drastic decline in their numbers that almost led to their extinction.[15] Horses of this period averaged about 13 hands (52 inches, or 4’33”) in height. with an average weight of 280 kilograms (617 pounds). Expanding on this example, a Japanese warrior, (eventually fully) armored and carrying weapons and mounted on such a small animal, could weigh in excess of 200 pounds, thus increasing the load carried by the animal to over 820 pounds. In addition, the saddle and other tack added weight; Friday states that a horse cannot carry more than a third of its weight and maintain a sustained running speed, which greatly impacted military maneuvering and tactics.[16]
European Breeding Programs
Meanwhile, Romans bred horses for size and versatility, using horses they imported from their North African territories.[17] The Romans established horse-centers in Italy in efforts to improve and standardize horses; these Italian horse centers became famous for their excellent horses and their breeding programs.
During the 6th, 7th, and 8th centuries CE the overall quality of horses declined, in large part, because of the increasing decentralization across Europe following the decline of Roman imperial authority. Fences, stables and enclosures were expensive to build and maintain with the result that many horses reverted to the wild (feral horses). Breeding efforts concentrated on the few quality horses remaining, and through trial and error, improvements in horse breeding procedures included new techniques and processes, defined in three stages. These stages included natural breeding, controlled breeding of selected stallions to selected mares, and in-stable breeding.
During the 6th, 7th, and 8th centuries CE the overall quality of horses declined, in large part, because of the increasing decentralization across Europe following the decline of Roman imperial authority. Fences, stables and enclosures were expensive to build and maintain with the result that many horses reverted to the wild (feral horses). Breeding efforts concentrated on the few quality horses remaining, and through trial and error, improvements in horse breeding procedures included new techniques and processes, defined in three stages. These stages included natural breeding, controlled breeding of selected stallions to selected mares, and in-stable breeding.
Breeding Techniques
Natural breeding included allowing stallions in a herd to breed with their herd mares. This often resulted in inconsistent results. Controlled breeding of selected horses represented the second stage of breeding procedures. The breeder controlled the selection of stock, to ensure that the horses involved were not part of a larger herd. Stable breeding involved stabling both animals; the stallion in a stable of his own and the mares in their own stable or enclosure. Encounters were often controlled by stable personnel. This was the most expensive way to breed horses, required a great deal of handler intervention, and was extensively used by royalty.
The horses in these photos include, from left to right, an Icelandic horse (12.5 hands), an Arabian, (15 hands), an Irish hunter (15-16 hands) and a Dutch Friesien, (17 hands). Notice the increase in size and bulk on the progression of horses. Dutch, Spanish, Italian and German horses contributed their size and stamina to produce superb warhorses, as well as palfreys. [18]
[1] Hans-Heinrich Isenbart, Emil M. Bührer, Fritz A. Bauchwitz, Barbara Rey. The Kingdom of the Horse. (New York: Time-Life Books, 1969), 78.
[2] R.H.C. Davis, The Medieval Warhorse: Origin, Development and Redevlopment. (London: Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1989), 18.
[3] H. Isenbart, H, Buhrer, E.M. The Kingdom of the Horse, 40.
[4] R.H.C. Davis, The Medieval Warhorse, 18.
[5] Karl F. Friday, Hired Swords: The Rise of Private Warrior Power in Early Japan (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992), 35-36.
[6] Stephen Turnbull, Samurai Warfare (London: Arms and Armour Press: 1996), 10, 13.
[7] Stephen Turnbull, Samurai: The Japanese Warrior’s Unofficial Manual (New York: Thames and Hudson, Inc., 2012), 62.
[8] R.H.C. Davis, The Medieval Warhorse, 19.
[12] Photo credit: http://www.arabianhorses.org/education/education_history_spread.asp
[14] Karl F. Friday, Samurai, Warfare, and the State in Early Medieval Japan (New York: Routledge, 2004), 96-7.
[15] Ian Bottomley, “Horse Accoutrements and Mounted Warfare,” in Art of Armor: Samurai Armor from the Ann and Gabriel Barbier-Mueller Collection, ed. J. Gabriel Barbier-Mueller (Dallas: The Ann and Gabriel Barbier-Mueller Museum, 2011), 79.
[16] Friday, Samurai, p 97.
[17] R.H.C. Davis, The Medieval Warhorse, 34.
[18] Photo Credits:
Icelandic horse: http://urvalshestar.is/en/icelandic-horses-for-sale/breeding-horses/broodmares/ ,
Arabian: http://www.arabianhorses.org/education/education_history_intro.asp ,
Irish Hunter: http://www.petcaregt.com/horsecare/horsebreeds/irishhunter.html ,
Dutch Friesen: http://www.friesianhorsesociety.com/albums/album_image/2081877/7838261.htm
Icelandic horse: http://urvalshestar.is/en/icelandic-horses-for-sale/breeding-horses/broodmares/ ,
Arabian: http://www.arabianhorses.org/education/education_history_intro.asp ,
Irish Hunter: http://www.petcaregt.com/horsecare/horsebreeds/irishhunter.html ,
Dutch Friesen: http://www.friesianhorsesociety.com/albums/album_image/2081877/7838261.htm